Cervical cancer? HELP!?!
Question: Cervical cancer!? HELP!!?
hey guys!.
could you help with answering these questions about cervical cancer pleaseee!:)
Q1!. Describe how the new vaccine works to prevent cervical cancer in women
Q2!. How do males play a role in causing cervical cancer in women, and why are they not being vaccinated!?
<i>Please help, i need this information badly!!!!
:)thankyouWww@Answer-Health@Com
could you help with answering these questions about cervical cancer pleaseee!:)
Q1!. Describe how the new vaccine works to prevent cervical cancer in women
Q2!. How do males play a role in causing cervical cancer in women, and why are they not being vaccinated!?
<i>Please help, i need this information badly!!!!
:)thankyouWww@Answer-Health@Com
Answers:
The vaccine must be given before sexual activity begins, they can start giving it as early as age 9, It is given with injections over a few months time!. This will prevent them from getting the Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection !. However it does not protect against other infections!.
The HPV is one of the major causes of cervical cancers in women!.
Men can get this virus but, most men that get this virus usually never have any symptoms nor illness from it!. They can but it is rare!.Therefore it was more important to research a cure for women since they die from it because of the cancer results and they lose child bearing ability also!.Www@Answer-Health@Com
The HPV is one of the major causes of cervical cancers in women!.
Men can get this virus but, most men that get this virus usually never have any symptoms nor illness from it!. They can but it is rare!.Therefore it was more important to research a cure for women since they die from it because of the cancer results and they lose child bearing ability also!.Www@Answer-Health@Com
Cervical cancer: malignant cancer of the cervix uteri or cervical area!. It may present with vaginal bleeding but symptoms may be absent until the cancer is in its advanced stages!. Treatment consists of surgery (including local excision) in early stages and chemotherapy and radiotherapy in advanced stages of the disease!.
Pap smear screening can identify potentially precancerous changes!. Treatment of high grade changes can prevent the development of cancer!. In developed countries, the widespread use of cervical screening programs has reduced the incidence of invasive cervical cancer by 50% or more!.
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a necessary factor in the development of nearly all cases of cervical cancer!.[1] HPV vaccine effective against the two most common cancer-causing strains of HPV has been licensed in the U!.S!. and the EU!. These two HPV strains together are currently responsible for approximately 70%[2][3] of all cervical cancers!. Experts recommend that women combine the benefits of both programs by seeking regular Pap smear screening, even after vaccination!.
Contents [hide]
1 Classification
2 Signs and symptoms
3 Causes
3!.1 Human papillomavirus infection
3!.2 Cofactors
4 Diagnosis
4!.1 Biopsy procedures
4!.2 Pathologic types
4!.3 Staging
5 Treatment
6 Prevention
6!.1 Awareness
6!.2 Screening
6!.3 Preventive Vaccination
6!.4 Condoms
7 Prognosis
8 Epidemiology
9 History
10 See also
11 References and Notes
12 External links
[edit] Classification
Cervical cancer is a carcinoma, typically composed of squamous cells, and is similar in some respects to squamous cell cancers of the head and neck and anus!. All three of these diseases may be associated with human papillomavirus infection!.
[edit] Signs and symptoms
The early stages of cervical cancer may be completely asymptomatic!.[4] Vaginal bleeding, contact bleeding or (rarely) a vaginal mass may indicate the presence of malignancy!. Also, moderate pain during sexual intercourse and vaginal discharge are symptoms of cervical cancer!. In advanced disease, metastases may be present in the abdomen, lungs or elsewhere!.
Symptoms of advanced cervical cancer may include: loss of appetite, weight loss, fatigue, pelvic pain, back pain, leg pain, single swollen leg, heavy bleeding from the vagina, leaking of urine or feces from the vagina,[5] and bone fractures!.
[edit] Causes
[edit] Human papillomavirus infection
The most important risk factor in the development of cervical cancer is infection with a high-risk strain of human papillomavirus!. The virus cancer link works by triggering alterations in the cells of the cervix, which can lead to the development of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, which can lead to cancer!.
Women who have many sexual partners (or who have sex with men or women who had many partners) have a greater risk!.[6][7]
More than 250 types of HPV are acknowledged to exist (some sources indicate more than 200 subtypes)!.[8][9] Of these, 15 are classified as high-risk types (16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 68, 73, and 82), 3 as probable high-risk (26, 53, and 66), and 12 as low-risk (6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 61, 70, 72, 81, and CP6108),[10] but even those may cause cancer!. Types 16 and 18 are generally acknowledged to cause about 70% of cervical cancer cases!. Together with type 31, they are the prime risk factors for cervical cancer!.[11]
Genital warts are caused by different HPV types and have no relation to cervical cancer!.
The medically accepted paradigm, officially endorsed by the American Cancer Society and other organizations, is that a patient must have been infected with HPV to develop cervical cancer, and is hence viewed as a sexually transmitted disease, but most women infected with high risk HPV will not develop cervical cancer!.[12] Use of condoms reduces, but does not always prevent transmission!. Likewise, HPV can be transmitted by skin-to-skin-contact with infected areas!. In males, HPV is thought to grow preferentially in the epithelium of the glans penis, and cleaning of this area may be preventative!.
[edit] Cofactors
The American Cancer Society provides the following list of risk factors for cervical cancer: human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, smoking, HIV infection, chlamydia infection, dietary factors, hormonal contraception, multiple pregnancies, exposure to the hormonal drug diethylstilbestrol (DES) and a family history of cervical cancer!.[6]
Despite the development of an HPV vaccine, some researchers argue that routine neonatal male circumcision is an acceptable way to lower the risk of cervical cancer in their future female sexual partners!. Others maintain that the benefits do not outweigh the risks and/or consider the removal of healthy genital tissue from infants to be unethical as it cannot be reasonably assumed that a male would choose to be circumcised!. There has not been any definitive evidence to support the claim that male circumcision prevents cervical cancer, although some researchers say there is compelling epidemiological evidence that men who have been circumcised are less likely to be infected with HPV!.[13] However, in men with low-risk sexual behaviour and monogamous female partners, circumcision makes no difference to the risk of cervical cancer!.[14]
[edit] Diagnosis
[edit] Biopsy procedures
While the pap smear is an effective screening test, confirmation of the diagnosis of cervical cancer or pre-cancer requires a biopsy of the cervix!. This is often done through colposcopy, a magnified visual inspection of the cervix aided by using an acetic acid (e!.g!. vinegar) solution to highlight abnormal cells on the surface of the cervix!.
Further diagnostic procedures are loop electrical excision procedure (LEEP) and conization, in which the inner lining of the cervix is removed to be examined pathologically!. These are carried out if the biopsy confirms severe cervical intraepithelial neoplasia!.
[edit] Pathologic types
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, the precursor to cervical cancer, is often diagnosed on examiniation of cervical biopsies by a pathologist!. Histologic subtypes of invasive cervical carcinoma include the following:[15][16]
squamous cell carcinoma (about 80-85%)
adenocarcinoma
adenosquamous carcinoma
small cell carcinoma
neuroendocrine carcinoma
Non-carcinoma malignancies which can rarely occur in the cervix include
melanoma
lymphoma
Note that the FIGO stage does not incorporate lymph node involvement in contrast to the TNM staging for most other cancers!.
For cases treated surgically, information obtained from the pathologist can be used in assigning a separate pathologic stage but is not to replace the original clinical stage!.
For premalignant dysplastic changes, the CIN (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia) grading is used!.
[edit] Staging
Cervical cancer is staged by the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) staging system, which is based on clinical examination, rather than surgical findings!. It allows only the following diagnostic tests to be used in determining the stage: palpation, inspection, colposcopy, endocervical curettage, hysteroscopy, cystoscopy, proctoscopy, intravenous urography, and X-ray examination of the lungs and skeleton, and cervical conization!.
The TNM staging system for cervical cancer is analogous to the FIGO stage!.
Stage 0 - full-thickness involvement of the epithelium without invasion into the stroma (carcinoma in situ)
Stage I - limited to the cervix
IA - diagnosed only by microscopy; no visible lesions
IA1 - stromal invasion less than 3 mm in depth and 7 mm or less in horizontal spread
IA2 - stromal invasion between 3 and 5 mm with horizontal spread of 7 mm or less
IB - visible lesion or a microscopic lesion with more than 5 mm of depth or horizontal spread of more than 7 mm
IB1 - visible lesion 4 cm or less in greatest dimension
IB2 - visible lesion more than 4 cm
Stage II - invades beyond cervix
IIA - without parametrial invasion, but involve upper 2/3 of vagina
IIB - with parametrial invasion
Stage III - extends to pelvic wall or lower third of the vagina
IIIA - involves lower third of vagina
IIIB - extends to pelvic wall and/or causes hydronephrosis or non-functioning kidney
IVA - invades mucosa of bladder or rectum and/or extends beyond true pelvis
IVB - distant metastasis
[edit] Treatment
Microinvasive cancer (stage IA) is usually treated by hysterectomy (removal of the whole uterus including part of the vagina)!. For stage IA2, the lymph nodes are removed as well!. An alternative for patients who desire to remain fertile is a local surgical procedure such as a loop electrical excision procedure (LEEP) or cone biopsy!.[17]
If a cone biopsy does not produce clear margins,[18] one more possible treatment option for patients who want to preserve their fertility is a trachelectomy!.[19] This attempts to surgically remove the cancer while preserving the ovaries and uterus, providing for a more conservative operation than a hysterectomy!. It is a viable option for those in stage I cervical cancer which has not spread; however, it is not yet considered a standard of care,[20] as few doctors are skilled in this procedure!. Even the most experienced surgeon cannot promise that a trachelectomy can be performed until after surgical microscopic examination, as the extent of the spread of cancer is unknown!. If the surgeon is not able to microscopically confirm clear margins of cervical tissue once the patient is under general anesthesia in the operating room, a hysterectomy may still be needed!. This can only be done during the same operation if the patient has given prior consent!. Due to the possible risk of cancer spread to the lymph nodes in stage 1b cancers and some stage 1a cancers, the surgeon may also need to remove some lymph nodes from around the uterus forWww@Answer-Health@Com
Pap smear screening can identify potentially precancerous changes!. Treatment of high grade changes can prevent the development of cancer!. In developed countries, the widespread use of cervical screening programs has reduced the incidence of invasive cervical cancer by 50% or more!.
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a necessary factor in the development of nearly all cases of cervical cancer!.[1] HPV vaccine effective against the two most common cancer-causing strains of HPV has been licensed in the U!.S!. and the EU!. These two HPV strains together are currently responsible for approximately 70%[2][3] of all cervical cancers!. Experts recommend that women combine the benefits of both programs by seeking regular Pap smear screening, even after vaccination!.
Contents [hide]
1 Classification
2 Signs and symptoms
3 Causes
3!.1 Human papillomavirus infection
3!.2 Cofactors
4 Diagnosis
4!.1 Biopsy procedures
4!.2 Pathologic types
4!.3 Staging
5 Treatment
6 Prevention
6!.1 Awareness
6!.2 Screening
6!.3 Preventive Vaccination
6!.4 Condoms
7 Prognosis
8 Epidemiology
9 History
10 See also
11 References and Notes
12 External links
[edit] Classification
Cervical cancer is a carcinoma, typically composed of squamous cells, and is similar in some respects to squamous cell cancers of the head and neck and anus!. All three of these diseases may be associated with human papillomavirus infection!.
[edit] Signs and symptoms
The early stages of cervical cancer may be completely asymptomatic!.[4] Vaginal bleeding, contact bleeding or (rarely) a vaginal mass may indicate the presence of malignancy!. Also, moderate pain during sexual intercourse and vaginal discharge are symptoms of cervical cancer!. In advanced disease, metastases may be present in the abdomen, lungs or elsewhere!.
Symptoms of advanced cervical cancer may include: loss of appetite, weight loss, fatigue, pelvic pain, back pain, leg pain, single swollen leg, heavy bleeding from the vagina, leaking of urine or feces from the vagina,[5] and bone fractures!.
[edit] Causes
[edit] Human papillomavirus infection
The most important risk factor in the development of cervical cancer is infection with a high-risk strain of human papillomavirus!. The virus cancer link works by triggering alterations in the cells of the cervix, which can lead to the development of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, which can lead to cancer!.
Women who have many sexual partners (or who have sex with men or women who had many partners) have a greater risk!.[6][7]
More than 250 types of HPV are acknowledged to exist (some sources indicate more than 200 subtypes)!.[8][9] Of these, 15 are classified as high-risk types (16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 68, 73, and 82), 3 as probable high-risk (26, 53, and 66), and 12 as low-risk (6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 61, 70, 72, 81, and CP6108),[10] but even those may cause cancer!. Types 16 and 18 are generally acknowledged to cause about 70% of cervical cancer cases!. Together with type 31, they are the prime risk factors for cervical cancer!.[11]
Genital warts are caused by different HPV types and have no relation to cervical cancer!.
The medically accepted paradigm, officially endorsed by the American Cancer Society and other organizations, is that a patient must have been infected with HPV to develop cervical cancer, and is hence viewed as a sexually transmitted disease, but most women infected with high risk HPV will not develop cervical cancer!.[12] Use of condoms reduces, but does not always prevent transmission!. Likewise, HPV can be transmitted by skin-to-skin-contact with infected areas!. In males, HPV is thought to grow preferentially in the epithelium of the glans penis, and cleaning of this area may be preventative!.
[edit] Cofactors
The American Cancer Society provides the following list of risk factors for cervical cancer: human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, smoking, HIV infection, chlamydia infection, dietary factors, hormonal contraception, multiple pregnancies, exposure to the hormonal drug diethylstilbestrol (DES) and a family history of cervical cancer!.[6]
Despite the development of an HPV vaccine, some researchers argue that routine neonatal male circumcision is an acceptable way to lower the risk of cervical cancer in their future female sexual partners!. Others maintain that the benefits do not outweigh the risks and/or consider the removal of healthy genital tissue from infants to be unethical as it cannot be reasonably assumed that a male would choose to be circumcised!. There has not been any definitive evidence to support the claim that male circumcision prevents cervical cancer, although some researchers say there is compelling epidemiological evidence that men who have been circumcised are less likely to be infected with HPV!.[13] However, in men with low-risk sexual behaviour and monogamous female partners, circumcision makes no difference to the risk of cervical cancer!.[14]
[edit] Diagnosis
[edit] Biopsy procedures
While the pap smear is an effective screening test, confirmation of the diagnosis of cervical cancer or pre-cancer requires a biopsy of the cervix!. This is often done through colposcopy, a magnified visual inspection of the cervix aided by using an acetic acid (e!.g!. vinegar) solution to highlight abnormal cells on the surface of the cervix!.
Further diagnostic procedures are loop electrical excision procedure (LEEP) and conization, in which the inner lining of the cervix is removed to be examined pathologically!. These are carried out if the biopsy confirms severe cervical intraepithelial neoplasia!.
[edit] Pathologic types
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, the precursor to cervical cancer, is often diagnosed on examiniation of cervical biopsies by a pathologist!. Histologic subtypes of invasive cervical carcinoma include the following:[15][16]
squamous cell carcinoma (about 80-85%)
adenocarcinoma
adenosquamous carcinoma
small cell carcinoma
neuroendocrine carcinoma
Non-carcinoma malignancies which can rarely occur in the cervix include
melanoma
lymphoma
Note that the FIGO stage does not incorporate lymph node involvement in contrast to the TNM staging for most other cancers!.
For cases treated surgically, information obtained from the pathologist can be used in assigning a separate pathologic stage but is not to replace the original clinical stage!.
For premalignant dysplastic changes, the CIN (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia) grading is used!.
[edit] Staging
Cervical cancer is staged by the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) staging system, which is based on clinical examination, rather than surgical findings!. It allows only the following diagnostic tests to be used in determining the stage: palpation, inspection, colposcopy, endocervical curettage, hysteroscopy, cystoscopy, proctoscopy, intravenous urography, and X-ray examination of the lungs and skeleton, and cervical conization!.
The TNM staging system for cervical cancer is analogous to the FIGO stage!.
Stage 0 - full-thickness involvement of the epithelium without invasion into the stroma (carcinoma in situ)
Stage I - limited to the cervix
IA - diagnosed only by microscopy; no visible lesions
IA1 - stromal invasion less than 3 mm in depth and 7 mm or less in horizontal spread
IA2 - stromal invasion between 3 and 5 mm with horizontal spread of 7 mm or less
IB - visible lesion or a microscopic lesion with more than 5 mm of depth or horizontal spread of more than 7 mm
IB1 - visible lesion 4 cm or less in greatest dimension
IB2 - visible lesion more than 4 cm
Stage II - invades beyond cervix
IIA - without parametrial invasion, but involve upper 2/3 of vagina
IIB - with parametrial invasion
Stage III - extends to pelvic wall or lower third of the vagina
IIIA - involves lower third of vagina
IIIB - extends to pelvic wall and/or causes hydronephrosis or non-functioning kidney
IVA - invades mucosa of bladder or rectum and/or extends beyond true pelvis
IVB - distant metastasis
[edit] Treatment
Microinvasive cancer (stage IA) is usually treated by hysterectomy (removal of the whole uterus including part of the vagina)!. For stage IA2, the lymph nodes are removed as well!. An alternative for patients who desire to remain fertile is a local surgical procedure such as a loop electrical excision procedure (LEEP) or cone biopsy!.[17]
If a cone biopsy does not produce clear margins,[18] one more possible treatment option for patients who want to preserve their fertility is a trachelectomy!.[19] This attempts to surgically remove the cancer while preserving the ovaries and uterus, providing for a more conservative operation than a hysterectomy!. It is a viable option for those in stage I cervical cancer which has not spread; however, it is not yet considered a standard of care,[20] as few doctors are skilled in this procedure!. Even the most experienced surgeon cannot promise that a trachelectomy can be performed until after surgical microscopic examination, as the extent of the spread of cancer is unknown!. If the surgeon is not able to microscopically confirm clear margins of cervical tissue once the patient is under general anesthesia in the operating room, a hysterectomy may still be needed!. This can only be done during the same operation if the patient has given prior consent!. Due to the possible risk of cancer spread to the lymph nodes in stage 1b cancers and some stage 1a cancers, the surgeon may also need to remove some lymph nodes from around the uterus forWww@Answer-Health@Com